3.1 The author: Olafur Arnalds

The author is a soil scientist and a professor emeritus at the Agricultural University of Iceland (AUI). This web-page to provides information related to the scientific fields of the author (English and Icelandic), with a publication list, CV etc. Much of the scientific material was published in the book "The Soils of Iceland".

I have dedicated much of my life to soil- and nature research in Iceland. I have tried to summarize this work and others in the book “The Soils of Iceland” which was published by Springer (2015), yet there are also more recent publications to consider (see publications). The book contains a wealth of references to Icelandic soils and nature.

Icelandic soils are special on a global scale. They are Andisols (US Soil Taxonomy) or Andosols (WRB system), soils that form in volcanic ejecta, but such soils are common within the volcanic regions on Earth. However, intense aeolian activity, the basaltic nature of the volcanic materials, intense cryoturbation, and the extensive sandy deserts set the Icelandic soil environments apart from other volcanic areas. Even the wetland soils are unique for Arctic soils: a blend of Andosols and organic soils of Arctic wetlands.

Andisols have unique soil properties; fertile soils with high water retention but lacking cohesion. They main colloidal constituents are allophane and imogolite, and ferrihydrite is also common in Iceland.

The soils under vegetation often have distinct layers of volcanic ash (tephra), making the colorful, but the layers can also be used for dating. About 40% of Icelandic surfaces are poorly vegetated - deserts. These surfaces have a special soil type that is separated from other Andosols and are termed Vitrisols.

See the book: The Soils of Iceland

Also: Vitrisols in Iceland. Review of their Classification and Properties

3.2 The Soils of Iceland

The book describes the soils of Iceland in a broad pedological, ecological and geomorphological context. The book is aimed for the scientist, student and the general reader alike. It is 180 pages with numerous color photographs, maps and other figures. It is available on Amazon and ‘Bóksala Studenta’ (University of Iceland Bookstore)

The book is about what shapes the Icelandic soils and the soil landscapes, the services these soils provide, the severe impact of man, and how it is perceived. The book is intended to help the reader, the student of Icelandic nature, the numerous visitors — anyone interested in Icelandic nature — to understand the soils of Iceland and the processes that shape Icelandic landscapes. It takes a broad approach considering soils as a part of the environment and ecosystems resulting in a publication giving a wide-ranging insight into Icelandic nature in general and the volcanic geology in particular, which is an important factor in determining soil formation on this island. The book describes a simple classification scheme for Icelandic soils. Physical properties, chemistry and pedogenesis is discussed in some detail, with numerous photos, figures and tabular data. Separate chapters are devoted to the effects of frost on soils and the environment and the extremely active aeolian processes, which influence the main properties of all Icelandic soils. In no other country outside of the arid regions has land degradation and soil erosion had as detrimental consequences as in Iceland, which is addressed in the final chapter of the book. Publication date: 2015

Contents:

Preface
1. Introduction
2. High in the north - Climate, people and agriculture
3. Geology
4. Vegetation and ecosystems
5. Andosols - Soils of volcanic regions
6. Classification and the main soil types
7. Physical characteristics
8. Chemical characteristics
9. Genesis and mineralogical characteristics
10. Frost and the soil environment
11. The volcanic aeolian environments of Ieland
12. Collapse, erosion, condition and restoration

3.3 Land Condition - To read the land (and to heal it)

To Read and Heal the Land is based on an earlier version in Icelandic. The original version included discussions on possible solutions – ecological restoration – principles and practices which will be added to this text in the near future for a complete publication.

There has been severe degradation of Icelandic ecosystems since the settlement of Iceland about 870 AD. Living conditions were harsh and human existence was marginal. Soil erosion is discussed under a special sub-page, but the condition of the land is discussed under the 12th chapter of "The Soils of Iceland", which has a reference list that may be of use. There is a recent paper to consider: “A framework model for current land condition in Iceland.” PLoS ONE 18(7) PDF .

​Large tracts of land in Iceland have become barren wastelands while much of the remaining ecosystems are in altered and often poor state – because of land degradation. Poor condition of the land is one of Iceland’s biggest environmental challenges, and the restoration of the degraded ecosystems is an enormous and important task. Land degradation is a global problem and restoring ecosystems is the focus of international treaties.

There are areas in good condition, of course, yet too many people fail to consider or recognize the difference. Even those that use the land for agriculture or various other purposes – even natural scientists…….

It is important to realize the relationship between land use and land condition, and that the condition of the land can be improved, degraded land can be restored.

The book “To Read and Heal the Land” is a text aimed for students and interested public to help the reader to:

• understand the condition of Icelandic ecosystems – by applying easily identifiable ecosystem condition stages ranging from collapsed state (deserts with broken energy, nutrient and water cycles) to excellent condition;

• provide some fundamental information about the principles of land restoration;

• become familiar with ecosystem succession processes and both physical and biological controls and constraints of succession;

• comprehend ecosystem factors that express land condition, including soil and vegetation factors such as cover, composition, soil organic matter, and factors that affect physical surface conditions;

• understand degradation processes and their impacts on ecosystems;

• realize the interaction between land use and land condition;

• recognize the different erosion processes and landscape forms that express active soil erosion;

• learn to work with nature in improving the condition of the land, and that there are no quick fixes.

3.4 Soil Erosion in Iceland

Soil erosion has had immense consequences for Icelandic ecosystems over the past Millenia, often resulting in barren surfaces (‘deserts’) where fully vegetated systems existed before (see : “A framework model for current land condition in Iceland.” PLoS ONE 18(7) PDF and the section on land condition.

We mapped soil erosion in the field in 1991-1997 in the scale 1:100 000 for all of Iceland. The results were published in the book "Soil Erosion in Iceland". The project involved classification of soil erosion forms and desert forms, as well as developing scale for erosion severity. The results consist of a comprehensive databank for soil erosion in Iceland and the geomorphology of Icelandic desert surfaces.

The project can be considered a pioneer work on an international scale. The project received the prestigious “Nordic Council Nature and Environment Prize” in 1998. The data has been used for multiple purposes since then and continues to be a comprehensive land cover for Icelandic desert surfaces.

3.5 Sandy deserts and dust (aeolian environment)

The sandy deserts of Iceland cover 20 000 km2. They are unique on a global scale, being dark-colored (black) volcanogenic basalt sands. Some of the surfaces are extremely unstable, with sand-flow exceeding 1000 kg crossing a meter wide line in single storm. There are certain areas that are hot spots for dust production, rating among the most active or "productive" dust sources on Earth. The dust production amounts to 30-40 million tons annually, having immense impacts on all Icelandic ecosystems and most likely on primary production in the oceans around Iceland as well. Link to review paper in Aeolian Research.

The sandy deserts often threaten vegetated ecosystems and advancing sand fronts are responsible for a large part of ecosystem destruction in Iceland since the settlement (about 870 AD). They pose a huge challenge for reclamation activities. Iceland has one of the oldest soil conservation institutes in the world, established in 1907 to fight sand encroachment (now under “Land and Forest”).

The deserts are quite aesthetic in their own right, yet they are hostile environments with intense frost action in winter, fluvial processes (impeded infiltration in winter), wind erosion with severe sand abrasion, and rapid evaporation of water on sunny summer days with the surface heating up to >40°C. Icelandic deserts and desert surface processes have been used as analogue for conditions on the planet Mars.

There is ample rainfall in many of the desert areas. They are interesting features in the context of the definition of a desert and desertification. Icelandic deserts show that it is they fate of the water and other ecosystem characteristics that determine what makes barren areas, not the rainfall category, which often are used to define deserts and desertification. However, ‘desert’ as a arid biome characterized by plants adopted to draught is a different use of the term from ‘desert’ as a barren area.

3.6 Frost and the environment

Solifluction features in East Iceland. Sheep (white spots) give the scale.

Frost has pronounced influences on soils and landscapes of Iceland. The soils are generally very frost susceptible, rich in silt-sized particles and aggregates. Colloidal constituents of the soils retain large quantities of water but behave like silt with rapid hydraulic conductivity and frost susceptibility. Winter temperatures are characterized more frequent freeze-thaw cycles than known elsewhere. The soils lack layer silicates (clays; allophane clay is a sphere) that provide cohesion for soils elsewhere and they are easily deformed by frost. Many are thixotropic at high water contents. The soils are often heavily cryoturbated, but periglacial surface landforms characterize the landscapes, especially thufur (hummocks), solifluction features (terraces and lobes) and patterned ground on many deserts. Thufur occur in areas without a shallow water table, because of the combination of soil properties and climatic factors, often enhanced by grazing of animals. Needle-ice formation is extremely common on barren surfaces in winter, having pronounced effects on surface stability and negative effects on primary succession. Palsas (or lithalsas) occur in some highland areas.

Typical thufur. Note hiking pole laying on the ground (up slightly right) to give scale.

Thufur within grazed area (horses) but they are not prominent outside of the grazed area

Needle ice in an erosion spot, magnificent creations of water and frost, yet killing plant seedlings and preventing regeneration of plants

The magnificent Orravatnsrustir plasas/lithalsas in the NW highlands. International classification of such features work poorly for these Andisol dominant palsas (“ando-plasas”?, “rústir” in Icelandic).

3.7. Soil Poems

The editors book dedicated to arts and soils gave me and Veronique Maria the task of soil genesis (published in 2019). Veronique Maria was responsible for the visual arts, while I took lead on the poems – which was great fun. Here are some examples (OA and VM authors).

Soil Gensis. Artwork by Veronique Maria.

I reccomend the book! Here is the reference:

Ólafur Arnalds og Veronique Maria. 2019. Soil Genesis. A Dialogue for Creation. In: Dialogues on Soil and Art in the Anthropocene (A. Toland, JS Noller and G Wessolek eds). CRC Press / Francis Taylor, New York. pp. 127-135. (Poems on soils plus visual artwork).